Amid ongoing geopolitical uncertainty and renewed volatility in energy markets, energy security has once again become a top priority for governments. Since the oil crises of the 1970s, many more countries have installed policies and emergency response measures that can buffer the impacts of potential supply disruptions, while also taking steps to diversify their energy mixes and improve energy efficiency. At the same time, the world’s energy system has grown increasingly complex and interconnected – calling for an expanded set of policy tools and updated approach to emergency preparedness, as discussed at the Summit on the Future of Energy Security in April 2025.
The IEA’s Global Energy Policies Hub, first released in October 2024 and reviewed annually by IEA Members, provides a snapshot of the current state of energy policies around the world. Its latest update, published this week, features over 5 000 records for over 84 countries that collectively represent about 90% of global energy demand. This presents an opportunity to explore how the world has progressed since the IEA was founded in 1974, and to assess whether it is in a better place to withstand shocks to energy supply chains. It also allows for an assessment of the new policies countries are adopting to manage emerging risks – from cyber threats to climate resilience and the security of clean energy supply chains.
Virtually all oil importers are now buffered by oil security measures advocated by the IEA
Over the past 50 years, significant strides have been made in implementing key emergency response measures to respond to oil supply disruptions. Prior to the first oil crisis in 1973, only a small number of countries – representing fewer than 1% of net oil imports – had emergency measures in place (such as Morocco’s 1971 Law on Security Stocks). The International Energy Programme, the IEA’s founding document, introduced a binding requirement in 1974 for Member countries to maintain oil reserves equivalent to 90 days of net imports, alongside measures to restrain demand and promote greater energy efficiency, diversification and innovation. As a result, by 1975, the coverage of emergency reserves and demand-restraint policies expanded to about 10 countries representing about 35% of global net imports.
Additional policies were implemented in response to the oil market shocks prompted by the Gulf War in 1991, the Libyan Civil War in 2011, and Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022. Since 1991, 40 additional countries have adopted oil stockholding requirements and measures to help restrain demand in case of an emergency. Now, countries with at least one or more oil security measure cover 98% of net oil imports, with emergency oil stock requirements present in 61 countries (42 of which are net importers).
Natural gas security measures have proliferated over the past decade
Historically, natural gas security measures have been less common. However, the past 10 years have prompted a strong uptick in adoption – specifically in terms of stockholding requirements, which grew from covering only 11% of net gas imports in 2015 to 32% in 2025. Thirteen countries enacted or enhanced stockholding policies following Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022. Notably, the European Union (EU) implemented gas stockpiling requirements – which set obligations for member states to fill storage facilities to at least 90% of their capacity by November each year – and Japan established a Strategic Buffer LNG (SBL) framework, with LNG cargoes readily available in case of supply emergencies. However, gas stockpiling remains limited outside of IEA Member countries; only Chinese Taipei, Thailand, South Africa and Ukraine have mandates for strategic gas stocks. This leaves around 98% of natural gas demand in emerging and developing economies uncovered by stockpiling requirements.
Demand-restraint measures for gas have become increasingly common since Russia’s invasion of Ukraine as well. Over 40 countries that are net importers of gas now have legislation in place to implement such measures, with 25 introducing them within the past 10 years, including most EU and Balkan countries. These measures again remain limited in emerging and developing economies, with only 12 countries – including Bangladesh, India and Pakistan – incorporating explicit demand-side measures into legislation.
Efforts to diversify energy supplies and improve efficiency have become fixtures in energy security policy
Beyond emergency measures, governments have also pursued longer-term policy efforts since the 1970s to reduce their exposure to disruptions in energy supply, largely via measures to improve energy efficiency and diversify their energy mixes.
Based on the IEA’s tracking, energy efficiency policies are now in place in about 130 countries. The coverage and stringency of these policies continues to expand; more than 15% of global energy demand has been covered by new or upgraded energy efficiency regulations or incentives in the past four years. Recent policies include the 2024 EU Energy Performance of Buildings Directive, Australia’s first-ever federal fuel economy standard, updated carbon dioxide (CO2) standards in Mexico and stronger fuel efficiency standards in Saudi Arabia.
As a result of this expanding coverage and increased stringency, the energy efficiency of key equipment, vehicles and appliances sold has improved in all regions since 2010. Minimum Energy Performance Standards (MEPS) for appliances are getting tougher globally, the IEA Efficiency Policy Level Index shows. Meanwhile, stricter fuel economy standards have contributed to a more than 20% reduction in the road transport sector’s energy intensity, complementing trends such as increasing electrification and the substitution of other fuels for oil.
Policies aimed at diversifying countries’ energy mixes have also been implemented at an accelerated rate over the past two decades, especially in the power sector. Today, more than three-quarters of global power sector demand is covered by policies aimed at diversifying power generation, relying on measures such as utility obligations, tax credits and other incentives.
In recent years, the largest focus has been placed on renewables and nuclear. Since 2010, around 20 new countries have adopted new policies aimed at expanding renewable energy capacity, bringing the total to over 100 countries as of last year.
These efforts have had an impact. According to the IEA’s Total Energy Supply Diversification Index, in 1973, nearly 70% of today’s 32 IEA Members had what is considered high fuel concentrations in their energy mixes. Today, none remain in this category, following an increase in the shares of natural gas, nuclear power and renewable energy sources to meet their energy needs.
The focus of energy security policies is now expanding to cover critical minerals, cybersecurity and climate resilience
As the global energy system evolves, the definition of energy security is expanding, with governments increasingly considering measures to address risks related to critical minerals, cybersecurity and climate hazards. Policies and measures focused on energy supply chain risks remain less mature, but new frameworks are being adopted in a growing number of countries.
The IEA’s Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2025 highlighted the pivotal role that policy mechanisms can play in diversifying mineral supplies. While public financing support can help bring forward new projects, additional policy tools are needed to reduce investment barriers and provide long-term market signals. In light of the growing number of trade restrictions on critical minerals, strengthening resilience to potential supply disruptions is increasingly important as well.
Though efforts such as the IEA’s Voluntary Critical Minerals Security Programme, the Agency is working with governments to enhance preparedness, promote supply diversification, and foster innovation and recycling. The Critical Minerals Policy Tracker monitors and analyses policy developments on critical minerals across more than 35 countries. With an initial dataset of 200 policies, it now identifies more than 600.
Another recent IEA report, Energy Technology Perspectives 2024, highlights how countries are increasingly pursuing industrial strategies aimed at reducing supply chain risks for clean energy technologies and boosting domestic manufacturing. The EU Net-Zero Industry Act and Japan GX Promotion Strategy, for example, are set to alter the outlook for the manufacturing and trade of key energy products such as electric vehicles and batteries. Still, IEA analysis shows that further efforts are needed globally to ensure the diversification of supply chains for key energy components so they are less vulnerable to shocks.
The cybersecurity of energy infrastructure has also been receiving greater attention in the wake of several notable attacks.
Cybersecurity requirements for energy infrastructure are now in place in 71 countries. However, the frequency and complexity of attacks continues to increase; the IEA special report Energy and AI found that in 2024, a typical energy utility was subject to over 1 500 attempted cyberattacks per week – triple the number only four years earlier. The pace at which cybersecurity attacks grow and evolve will require the constant adaptation of policy frameworks to best respond to new threats – along with the use of technological innovations, such as proactive AI-enabled cybersecurity systems, which could enable quick interventions and responses to attacks.
Natural disasters continue to be among the most routine disruptions to energy systems – and risks to the secure operation of energy infrastructure are becoming more acute as a result of climate change and the increasing complexity of energy systems themselves.
To address these challenges and reduce the fallout from major weather events, natural disaster funds – which insure households and some small and medium enterprises in the case of major capital losses – are now in place in 55 countries.
During the Future of Energy Security Summit, countries asked the IEA to carry out a comprehensive assessment of the impacts of natural hazards on the energy system today and how they might evolve going forward, while identifying the policies and measures that could help address these risks.
The results will be published in a forthcoming report, and future versions of the Global Energy Policies Hub will include an expanded assessment of policies in this category.
The updated Global Energy Policies Hub, which tracks 5 000 policies from around the world, is publicly available on the IEA’s website. Its design continues to evolve in order to capture the full spectrum of policy approaches that countries are taking to ensure secure, affordable and sustainable energy systems.
Source: IEA